Three Branches of Government
- Executive: The Sovereign, Governor General, Prime Minister, and Cabinet, carries out government decisions
- Legislative: The Senate and House of Commons, makes and amends laws
- Judicial: The courts, interprets and applies laws
The Justice System
- Supreme Court of Canada: Highest court; 9 justices appointed by the Governor General on the PM's advice
- Rule of law: Everyone is subject to the law, including government officials
- Presumption of innocence: Anyone charged with a crime is presumed innocent until proven guilty
- Judicial independence: Judges are independent from the government; they decide cases based on the law and the facts
- RCMP (Royal Canadian Mounted Police): Canada's federal police force; enforces federal laws nationwide and serves as provincial police in all provinces and territories except Ontario and Quebec (which have their own provincial police forces)
Key Government Roles
| Role | Current Holder | Function |
|---|---|---|
| Head of State | King Charles III | Ceremonial; represented by the Governor General |
| Head of Government | Prime Minister (Mark Carney) | Runs the day-to-day government |
| Governor General | Mary Simon | King's representative at the federal level; signs bills into law |
| Lieutenant Governor | One per province | King's representative at the provincial level |
| Premier | One per province/territory | Head of provincial/territorial government |
⚠️ MAJOR TRAP: Any answer with "President" is WRONG. Canada has no President. Head of State = King/Queen (represented by Governor General). Head of Government = Prime Minister.
Parliament of Canada, Three Parts
- The Sovereign (King Charles III, represented by the Governor General)
- The Senate (upper house), 105 appointed members; serve until age 75
- House of Commons (lower house), 343 elected MPs from 343 ridings
⚠️ NOTE: The Discover Canada guide may still reference 308 or 338 seats. The current number is 343 following the 2022 redistribution, first used in the April 2025 election.
Current Composition (as of April 18, 2026)
| Party | Seats | Role |
|---|---|---|
| Liberal | 174 | Majority government (Mark Carney, PM) |
| Conservative | 140 | Official Opposition (Pierre Poilievre) |
| Bloc Québécois | 22 | Third party (Yves-François Blanchet) |
| NDP | 6 | Below 12-seat recognition threshold |
| Green | 1 | Below 12-seat recognition threshold |
The Carney government crossed into majority territory on April 13, 2026 by sweeping three by-elections (University–Rosedale, Scarborough Southwest, Terrebonne) and having received five floor-crossers since November 2025. A recognized party needs at least 12 seats for full parliamentary privileges.
How a Bill Becomes Law
- First Reading, Bill introduced, no debate
- Second Reading, Debate on principle; vote
- Committee Stage, Detailed examination; amendments
- Report Stage, Further amendments considered
- Third Reading, Final debate and vote
- Senate, Same process in the Senate
- Royal Assent, Governor General signs it into law
Federal Elections
- First-past-the-post: Candidate with the most votes in each riding wins
- 343 ridings (electoral districts) across Canada
- Majority government: One party holds 172+ seats
- Minority government: Governing party holds fewer than 172 seats; needs support from other parties
- Elections must be held at least every 5 years (constitutional maximum); fixed-date legislation schedules them every 4 years
- Voting is by secret ballot; only Canadian citizens 18+ can vote
- Elections Canada: An independent, non-partisan agency that administers federal elections and referendums
Political Parties and Parliamentary Roles
- Canada's main federal parties: Liberal, Conservative, New Democratic Party (NDP), Bloc Québécois (Quebec only), Green Party
- Official Opposition: The party with the second-most seats in the House of Commons; its leader is the Leader of the Official Opposition
- Vote of non-confidence: If the governing party loses a confidence vote in the House, the government falls and an election is usually called
- By-elections: Elections held between general elections to fill vacant seats in the House of Commons
- Speaker of the House: An MP elected by fellow MPs to preside over debates in the House of Commons; must be impartial
Three Levels of Government
| Level | Leader | Key Responsibilities |
|---|---|---|
| Federal | Prime Minister | Defence, currency, criminal law, immigration, foreign affairs, banking |
| Provincial/Territorial | Premier | Education, health care, highways, natural resources, property rights |
| Municipal | Mayor | Local services: garbage, water, local roads, zoning, transit |
⚠️ MAJOR TRAP: Education and health care are PROVINCIAL, not federal. The federal government does NOT directly control schools or hospitals.
Division of Powers
- Federal powers: Trade, defence, criminal law, immigration, banking, postal service, Indigenous affairs
- Provincial powers: Education, health care, natural resources, property/civil rights, highways
- Shared powers: Agriculture, immigration (in some aspects), environment