The NPPE expects you to recognize the major normative ethical theories and apply them.
- Utilitarianism / consequentialism (Bentham, Mill): the right act produces the greatest good for the greatest number. Judges actions by outcomes. Weakness: may justify harming a minority for majority benefit.
- Deontology / duty-based ethics (Kant): some acts are right or wrong in themselves, independent of consequences. Act only on rules you could will to be universal (the categorical imperative); treat people as ends, never merely as means. Weakness: rigid when duties conflict.
- Virtue ethics (Aristotle): focuses on the character of the moral agent (honesty, integrity, courage), asking "what would a virtuous professional do?" rather than weighing rules or outcomes.
- Rights-based ethics: actions are judged by whether they respect individuals' fundamental rights (life, safety, privacy, informed consent).
- Social-contract theory: morality derives from an implicit agreement among rational people to cooperate. This is the basis of the profession's contract with society.
🧠 Memory hook: Consequences (utilitarian), Duties (Kant), Character (virtue), Rights (rights-based), Agreement (social contract).
Two key distinctions: Descriptive ethics describes what people actually believe; normative ethics prescribes what they ought to do. The NPPE is concerned with the normative. And morals vs. law: law is the enforceable minimum set by the state; morality is the broader sense of right and wrong. An act can be legal but unethical (or, rarely, ethical but illegal). A professional is held to the ethical standard, which usually exceeds the legal floor.
Exam tip: When a question names a theory, match it to its keyword: outcomes → utilitarian; universal rules/means-ends → Kant/deontology; character → virtue.